Table 3.1 Selected periods and (in italics) emperors in ancient Roman history (adapted from Scarre, 1995, pp136-7)
Dates Period
753 -510 BCE - Rome ruled by kings
510-27 BCE - Roman republic
27BCE - 476 CE - Rome ruled by emperors, including
27BCE - 14 CE - Augustus
41- 54 - Claudius
54 - 68 - Nero
69 - 79 - Vespasian
79- 81 - Titus
81 - 96 - Domitian
96 - 98 - Nerva
98 - 117 - Trajan
117 - 38 - Hadrian
138 - 61 - Antoninus Pius
193 - 211 - Septimius Severus
211- 17 - Caracalla
270 - 75 - Aurelian
284- 305 - Diocletian
306 - 12 - Maxentius
307 - 32 - Constantine 1
This chapter details the rise of Rome and the Roman Empire. From the first trading colonies established in Italy by the Phoenician traders and Greek settlers in the 8th Century BCE through the founding of the city, which archaeological evidence indicated was a result of a federation of a group of villages. The establishment of the Roman republic in 510 BCE to the emperors of 27 BCE and the Empire itself, through to the 5th Century CE. It records specifically that the Romans seem not to have been great innovators but tended to have improved on the established agricultural production methods and transport methods of the Greeks and the Phoenicians. The food requirements of the city were supplied by production across the Mediterranean and in overseas provinces such as Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, North Africa, and Egypt, and by the first century CE an estimated 250 shiploads of grain were unloaded at Portus each year. This was transported into the city by lighters or river-boats and stored and distributed from purpose built riverside warehouses.Sea transport continued to be markedly more efficient than land transport for carrying bulk goods such as agricultural produce, metals and building stones: according to one estimate of prices in Diocletian's reign, it was cheaper to carry grain the entire length of the Mediterranean than to transport it 120 kilometres by road (White,1984,p131). The marine trading system and its prevailing modes of transport therefore helped shape the pattern of urbanization in the Roman Empire; they were also the means by which Rome could grown as large as it did.' (Book1,p65).The Romans are well known for their road building but the roads were primarily used for moving infantry and their use of wheeled vehicles for commercial and industrial haulage was limited. Developments in land transport was almost all of Celtic origin.
Did any technological innovations influence the pattern of Roman urbanization?
Apparently not. The development of a system of cities dominated by one of unprecedented size was based mainly on established agricultural methods and modes of transport. The Romans' fine granaries were not original in design, and the developments in shipbuilding were mainly a matter of taking established technologies and using them on a larger scale. Similarly, this was not the first empire to invest in durable roads.
It might well be inferred that the genius of the Romans was the development of existing technologies, and of their organization on an impressive scale - as in their grain trade, and the road network that was a military necessity for the consolidation of a vast territorial empire. This is certainly the conclusion many historians have reached, but an open mind is needed at this stage.
DVD1 - Imperial Rome and Ostia
This programme gives a detailed insight into Roman methods of construction and building techniques. It particularly makes the point that in technology terms, the Romans themselves were not great innovators but rather developers and improvers of the technology of the Greeks and civilisations that they conquered. It does however, emphatically make the point that they were visionaries and great organizers and administrators, which enabled them both to run a vast empire, feed and house one million people in the city of Rome, with an infrastructure of complex houses and multi-storey houses, warehouses, temples, baths, amphitheatres, roads, and aqueducts ensuring ample clean water and effective heating systems for hot water. Specific mention is made of the Pantheon and the Baths of Caracalla. Finally mention should be made of the glass windows and double glazing particularly in their baths and exploiting its thermal properties.
3.2 Roman urban planning and morphology
This section looks at the respective influences of the Etruscans and the Greeks on the Roman city, particularly noting the gridiron planning which was distinctive of the Greek colonies. It also notes that these planned cities would appear to have been influenced by the style of military camps with central intersecting roads known as the east-west decumanus maximus and the north-south cardo maximus. At the intersection would be the forum a more self-contained version of the open Greek agora.
Rome itself like Athens was unplanned and more organic in its growth, although certain areas reveal grid planning. The restricted use of carts enforcing the use of porters, pack animals and walking limited horizontal city expansion so housing became multi-storied enabling individuals to live close to political and commercial centres.
Suburban development took place outside of the city walls and became the '...location of industrial premises with unpleasant by-products, such as fulleries and pottery workshops, and of large recreational buildings, such as stadia, amphitheatres and circuses'. (Bk1,p89) This encroachment on the countryside reinforce the ecological impact of urbanisation seen from the time of the Mesopotamians. The wealthy wishing to escape the crowded city built rural villas and market gardens emphasizing the changing relations between the metropolis and its hinterland. In late antiquity with declining populations and the threat of attack cities contracted with the need to live within defensive walls.
3.3 Technology and Roman building
This short introduction reviews the idea that the Romans were technologically uninventive and that their achievements were heavily dependent on the innovations of their captive people. Considering glass production and glass blowing, iron working and its application in building, and the fact that they used water wheels to power corn mills but did not apply this energy source to the production of iron, Hodges (1971) concludes that this technological uninventiveness was down to their social institutions, abundant labour power, widespread use of slaves, an intellectual elite that disdained commerce and industry which created a bureaucracy that had no incentive to develop technology.
Surveying and fortifications
A section on the surveying for colonial towns concluding that the instruments, procedures and technology were all of Greek origin. The section on fortification considers the two defensive walls around Rome. The Servian wall built of dry stone masonry after 390 BCE and the much larger Aurelianic wall some 19 kilometres long built in the 3C CE reflecting the developed technologies of both construction and siege warfare.
Building construction: a concrete revolution?
This lengthy section reviews Roman building methods and styles and the use of different materials. Particular note is made of the Roman development of concrete, which was used within facings of brick and consisted of fist sized pieces of stone held together with the mortar. The particular volcanic sand pozzalana was invaluable setting with great strength and having the ability to set under water. There is also discussion of the use by the Emperors and upper classes (wealthy) of marble being transported from all corners of the Empire, for use as facing material and as a sign of wealth, power and status. The description is also given to the multi-storey tenement buildings, insula, that housed the majority of the population. Finally it covers the Romans development of the Greek architecture and the use of trusses, arches, and vaults to enable them to construct some of their outstanding buildings like the Panthenon and the Baths of Caracalla.
Baths of Caracalla
Water supply and sanitation
Describing the Roman's use of aqueducts to provide water for both Rome and some of their provincial cities scattered throughout their empire. It also looks at the construction of damns and reservoirs particularly in semi-arid areas and the manner of their construction. It reviews the distribution of water throughout the city to fountains, cisterns, water towers and public baths. Distribution was carefully administered and private users were charged according to the size of their pipe. Both terracotta and lead pipes were used. Few private dwellings had a water supply, most residents collecting it from a public fountain. In most instances the water ran continually, running off through drains and hence helping to clean latrines and sewers.
Roman aqueduct
Reader (9) The Construction of Fortified Towns by Vitruvius
An interesting extract from a primary source, Vitruvius' Ten Books on Architecture, in which he sets out quite detailed recommendations for the siting of a town to ensure healthy living of its inhabitants and to ensure best protection from the elements. He further gives guidance on the construction of defensive walls, street planning and the most appropriate positions of public buildings and temples.
Reader (8) The Organisation and Supply of Roman Building
A lengthy and wordy article that recounts the various methods of organisation over centuries. It explores the supply of manpower to the building trade, and concludes this was mostly provided by 'free' poor unskilled workers as opposed to large numbers of slaves.
There is a specific section on brick and tile production which appears to be a well documented area . It also traces the change in attitude and perception of public buildings from the somewhat muddled and bureaucratic republican times to the use of building projects and building works as propaganda and statements of status by emperors.
Reader (10) On the Water Supply of the City of Rome
Frontinus writes about the laws concerning the supply of water and particularly to private households, and the concern of those illegally tapping the water supply.
3.4 Rome: building the metropolis
Discussion on major buildings throughout Rome in the light of the growth of the City, the needs of markets and the desire of Emperors to be seen as benefactors. Again concrete and its development as used in large vaulted structures particularly is seen as a major achievement i.e. Panthenon and Baths of Caracalla. Leisure and entertainment are highlighted by many of these buildings as being a major part of the cities life and speculation is mentioned in the chapter of the city being 'a parasite' on the rest of the empire. Many of these major buildings provided by the rulers can be viewed as an attempt to placate the differences between lavish villas of the rich and ruling classes and the poor conditions that many ordinary Romans lived in, in the multi storied insulae
Conclusion
This section records that Rome grew to be the largest of all the ancient cities and that although throughout this entire section the assessment does seem to be of a limited inventiveness by the Romans, the city itself is testimony to a major advance in the application of such innovations as arches, vaults, aqueducts and hot bath. Considering the previous discussions on technological determinism and social constructivism the technologies in Rome and their application would appear to have been driven and used primarily for political and social purposes and not in themselves have been the reason for the growth and success of the city.
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